Jhc User's Manual

Using

Building Projects

Jhc does its own dependency chasing to track down source files, you need only provide it with the file containing your 'main' function on the command line. For instance, if you had a program 'HelloWorld.hs', the following would compile it to an executable named 'hello'.

; jhc HelloWorld.hs -o hello

Jhc searches for modules in its search path, which defaults to the current directory. Modules are searched for based on their names. For instance, the module Data.Foo will be searched for in 'Data/Foo.hs'. As an extension, jhc will also search for 'Data.Foo.hs'. The search path may be modifed with the '-i' command line option, or by setting the 'JHC_PATH' environment variable.

Using Libraries

jhc libraries are distributed as files with an 'hl' suffix, such as 'base-1.0.hl'. In order to use a haskell library you simply need to place the file in a directory that jhc will search for it. For instance, $HOME/lib/jhc. You may set the environment variable JHC_LIBRARY_PATH to specify alternate locations to search for libraries or specify directory to search with the -L command line option. -L- will clear the search path.

You can then use libraries with the '-p' command line option, for instance if you had a library 'mylibrary-1.0.hl' in your search path, the following would use it.

; jhc -p mylibrary MyProgram.hs -o myprogram

Environment Variables

Jhc's behavior is modified by several enviornment variables.

JHC_OPTS : this is read and appended to the command line of jhc invocations.

JHC_PATH : This specifies the path to search for modules.

JHC_LIBRARY_PATH : This specifies the path to search for libraries.

JHC_CACHE : This specified the directory jhc will use to cache values. having a valid cache is essential for jhc performance. It defaults to ~/.jhc/cache.

Building Haskell Libraries

Libraries are built by passing jhc a file describing the library via the --build-hl option. The file format is a simplified version of the cabal format. The name of the generated file will be basename-version.hl.

; jhc --build-hl mylibrary.cabal

Library File Format

The library file is a simple list of key value pairs seperated by colon. The fields that jhc cares about are

Name: The Name of your library
Version: The Version of your library
Exposed-Modules: Comma Seperated list of modules to be included in the library and made availabe to users of the library
Hidden-Modules: Comma Seperated list of modules that will be used by the library internally, but not be made available outside it.

Other fields are stored as-is inside of the generated hl file and can be seen with jhc --show-ho file.hl.

Dependency Information

Jhc can output dependency information describing how source files and libraries depend on each other while compiling code. The dependency information is generated when the --deps name.yaml option is passed to jhc. It is presented in the standard YAML format and its fields are as described below.

• LibraryDeps: the libraries that are dependend on. It is a hash of library ids to the specific filename of the library used.
• LibraryDesc: if building a library, this field contains the name of the library description file used.
• ModuleDeps: a hash of module names to the list of modules that are directly dependend on by said module.
• ModuleSouce: a hash of module name to the haskell source file used.

Options

Usage: jhc [OPTION...] Main.hs
  -V             --version                 print version info and exit
                 --version-context         print version context info and exit
                 --help                    print help information and exit
                 --info                    show compiler configuration information and exit
  -v             --verbose                 chatty output on stderr
  -z                                       Increase verbosity of statistics
  -d [no-]flag                             dump specified data during compilation
  -f [no-]flag                             set or clear compilation options
  -o FILE        --output=FILE             output to FILE
  -i DIR         --include=DIR             where to look for source files
  -I DIR                                   add to preprocessor include path
  -D NAME=VALUE                            add new definitions to set in preprocessor
                 --optc=option             extra options to pass to c compiler
  -N             --noprelude               do not automatically import the prelude
  -c                                       just compile the modules, caching the results.
  -C                                       compile to C code
  -E                                       preprocess the input and print result to stdout
  -k             --keepgoing               keep going on errors
                 --cross                   enable cross-compilation, choose target with the -m flag
                 --stop=parse/typecheck/c  stop after the given pass, parse/typecheck/c
                 --width=COLUMNS           width of screen for debugging output
                 --main=Main.main          main entry point
  -m arch        --arch=arch               target architecture options
                 --entry=<expr>            main entry point, showable expression
                 --show-ho=file.ho         Show ho file
                 --noauto                  Don't automatically load base and haskell98 packages
  -p file.hl                               Load given haskell library .hl file
  -L path                                  Look for haskell libraries in the given directory
                 --build-hl=file.cabal     Build hakell library from given library description file
                 --annotate-source=<dir>   Write preprocessed and annotated source code to the directory specified
                 --deps=<file.yaml>        Write dependency information to file specified
                 --interactive             run interactivly (for debugging only)
                 --ignore-ho               Ignore existing haskell object files
                 --nowrite-ho              Do not write new haskell object files
                 --no-ho                   same as --ignore-ho and --nowrite-ho
                 --ho-cache=JHC_CACHE      Use a global cache located in the directory passed as an argument.
                 --ho-dir=<dir>            Where to place and look for ho files
                 --stale=Module            Treat these modules as stale, even if a ho file is present
                 --list-libraries          List of installed libraries
                 --print-hsc-options       print options to pass to hsc2hs

valid -d arguments: 'help' for more info
    all-types, aspats, bindgroups, boxy-steps, c, class, class-summary, core, core-afterlift
    core-beforelift, core-initial, core-mangled, core-mini, core-pass, core-steps, datatable
    datatable-builtin, dcons, decls, defs, derived, e-alias, e-info, e-size, e-verbose, exports, grin
    grin-datalog, grin-final, grin-graph, grin-initial, grin-normalized, grin-posteval, grin-preeval
    imports, ini, instance, kind, kind-steps, optimization-stats, parsed, preprocessed, program
    progress, renamed, rules, rules-spec, scc-modules, sigenv, srcsigs, stats, steps, tags, the
    types, verbose, veryverbose

valid -f arguments: 'help' for more info
    boehm, controlled, cpp, debug, default, defaulting, ffi, full-int, global-optimize
    inline-pragmas, jgc, lint, m4, monomorphism-restriction, negate, profile, raw, rules, standalone
    type-analysis, unboxed-tuples, unboxed-values, wrapper

Code Options

Various options affecting how jhc interprets and compiles code can be controlled with the '-f' flag, the following options are availible, you can negate any particular one by prepending 'no-' to it.

Dumping Debugging Information

You can have jhc print out a variety of things while running as Controlled by the '-d' flag. The following is a list of possible parameters you can pass to '-d'.

Pragmas

Pragmas are special compiler directives that change its behavior in certain ways. In general, each compiler is free to define its own pragmas however jhc does try to implement the same ones as other compilers when it makes sense. pragmas appear in source code as {-# PRAGMANAME ... #-}

Function Properties

These must appear in the same file as the definition of a function. To apply one to a instance or class method, you must place it in the where clause of the instance or class declaration.

Rules/Specializations

Header Pragmas

These pragmas are only valid in the 'head' of a file, meaning they must come before the initial 'module' definition and in the first 4096 bytes of the file and must be preceded by and contain only characters in the ASCII character set.

OPTIONS_JHC : Specify extra options to use when processing this file. The options available are equivalent to the command line options, though, not all may have meaning when applied to a single file.

LANGUAGE : Specify various language options

Extensions

Module Search Path

Modules in jhc are searched for based on their name as in other Haskell compilers. However in addition to searching for 'Data/Foo.hs' for the module 'Data.Foo', jhc will also search for 'Data.Foo.hs'.

Rank-N Polymorphism

Jhc supports higher ranked polymorphism. jhc will never infer types of higher rank, however when the context unambiguously specifies a higher ranked type, it will be infered. For instance, user supplied type annotations and arguments to data constructors defined to by polymorphic will work.

Existential types

Unboxed Values

Unboxed values in jhc are specified in a similar fashion to GHC however the lexical syntax is not changed to allow # in identifiers. # is still used in the syntax for various unboxed constructs, but normal Haskell rules apply to other Haskell values. The convention is to suffix such types with '_' to indicate their status as unboxed.

Unboxed Tuples

Jhc supports unboxed tuples with the same syntax as GHC, (# 2, 4 #) is an unboxed tuple of two numbers. Unboxed tuples are enabled with -funboxed-tuples

Unboxed Strings

Unboxed strings are enabled with the -funboxed-values flag. They are specified like a normal string but have a '#' at the end. Unboxed strings have types 'Addr_' which is as synonym for 'BitsPtr'.

Unboxed Numbers

Unboxed numbers are enabled with the -funboxed-values flag. They are postpended with a '#' such as in 3# or 4#. Jhc supports a limited form of type inference for unboxed numbers, if the type is fully specified by the environment and it is a suitable unboxed numeric type then that type is used. Otherwise it defaults to Int__. Whether the type is fully specifed follows the same rules as rank-n types.

Foreign Primitives

In addition to foreign imports of external functions as described in the FFI spec. Jhc supports 'primitive' imports that let you communicate primitives directly to the compiler. In general, these should not be used other than in the implementation of the standard libraries. They generally do little error checking as it is assumed you know what you are doing if you use them. All haskell visible entities are introduced via foreign declarations in jhc.

They all have the form

foreign import primitive "specification" haskell_name :: type

where "specification" is one of the following

seq : evaluate first argument to WHNF, then return the second argument

zero,one : the values zero and one of any primitive type.

const.C_CONSTANT : the text following const is directly inserted into the resulting C file

peek.TYPE : the peek primitive for raw value TYPE

poke.TYPE : the poke primitive for raw value TYPE

sizeOf.TYPE, alignmentOf.TYPE, minBound.TYPE, maxBound.TYPE, umaxBound.TYPE : various properties of a given internal type.

error.MESSAGE : results in an error with constant message MESSAGE.

constPeekByte : peek of a constant value specialized to bytes, used internally by Jhc.String

box : take an unboxed value and box it, the shape of the box is determined by the type at which this is imported

unbox : take an boxed value and unbox it, the shape of the box is determined by the type at which this is imported

increment, decrement : increment or decrement a numerical integral primitive value

fincrement, fdecrement : increment or decrement a numerical floating point primitive value

exitFailure__ : abort the program immediately

C-- Primitive : any C-- primitive may be imported in this manner.

Differences

Differences from Haskell 98

Language Differences

• Class contexts on data types are silently ignored.

• Class methods are fully 'eta expanded' out to the argument count specified by the type. This is often beneficial as instances that need to share partial applications are rare. This behavior can be turned off with the NOETA pragma for specific methods.

Library Changes

In addition to a larger set of base libraries roughly modeled on GHC's base. Jhc provides a number of extensions/minor modifications to the standard libraries. These are designed to be mostly backwards compatible and most are to the class system.

• Data.Bits
  • Num is no longer a super class of Data.Bits. It never should have been.
  • There are new methods logicalShiftR and arithmeticShiftR that do a logical and arithmetic shift respectively. shiftR will always map to one of those as appropriate.
  • shiftR and shiftL do not check for negative arguments, if you might want negative arguments, use the general 'shift' routine. 'shift' also comes in logical and arithmetic varieties.

Library Additions

There are many other additional libraries provided with jhc, here I list only changes that affect modules that are defined by the haskell 98 or FFI specifications.

• Data.Int and Data.Word provide WordPtr, WordMax, IntPtr, and IntMax that correspond to the C types uintptr_t, uintmax_t, intptr_t, and intmax_t respectively.

• fromInt,toInt,fromDouble,toDouble have been added alongside Integer and Rational routines in their respective classes.

• floating point truncation and rounding functions have varieties that don't return an integral type, but rather return something of the same type as its argument. These have the same name but end in 'f'.

Notable Differences from GHC

Jhc differs from GHC in certain ways that are allowed by Haskell 98, but might come as a surprise to some.

• An Int may be only 30 bits and may not observe simple binary truncation on overflow. If you need known bit width and binary semantics for your numbers then use the types in Data.Int and Data.Word. Overflow on Int or Word has undefined results.

• A Char may only preserve values within the Unicode range. Storing values greater than 0x10FFFF has undefined results.

• The Int and Word types are at most 32 bits, even on 64 bit architectures.

• All text based IO is performed according to the current locale. This means that Unicode works seamlessly, but older programs that assumed IO was performed by simple truncation of chars down to 8 bits will fail. Use the explicit binary routines if you need binary IO.

Differences That are Considered Misfeatures

These misfeatures will be fixed at some point.

• Integer corresponds to IntMax rather than an arbitrary precision type. As soon as a suitable arbitrary precision library emerges, it will be replaced.

• Ix is not derivable.

CrossCompilation

Basics

Unlike many other compilers, jhc is a native cross compiler. What this means is that every compile of jhc is able to create code for all possible target systems. This leads to many simplifications when it comes to cross compiling with jhc. Basically in order to cross compile, you need only pass the flag '--cross' to jhc, and pass an appropriate '-m' option to tell jhc what machine you are targetting. An example would be

; jhc --cross -mwin32 test/HelloWorld.hs

The targets list is extensible at run-time via the targets.ini file explained below.

targets.ini

This file determines what targets are available. The format consists of entries as follows.

[targetname]
key1=value
key2=value
key3+=value
merge=targetname2

merge is a special key meaning to merge the contents of another target into the current one. The configuration file is read in order, and the final value set for a given key is the one that is used.

An example describing how to cross compile for windows is as follows:

[win32]
cc=i386-mingw32-gcc
cflags+=-mwindows -mno-cygwin
executable_extension=.exe
merge=i686

This sets the compiler to use as well as a few other options then jumps to the generic i686 routine. The special target [default] is always read before all other targets. If '--cross' is specified on the command line then this is the only implicitly included configuration, otherwise jhc will assume you are compiling for the current architecture and choose an appropriate target to include in addition to default.

jhc will attempt to read several targets.ini files in order. they are

$PREFIX/etc/jhc-$VERSION/targets.ini : this is the targets.ini that is included with jhc and contains the default options.

$PREFIX/etc/jhc-$VERSION/targets-local.ini : jhc will read this if it exists, it is used to specify custom system wide configuration options, such as the name of local compilers.

$HOME/.jhc/targets.ini : this is where a users local configuration information goes.

$HOME/etc/jhc/targets.ini : this is simply for people that prefer to not use hidden directories for configuration

The last value specified for an option is the one used, so a users local configuration overrides the system local version which overrides the built in options.

Options available

Internals

The Run Time System

Jhc is very minimalist in that it does not have a precompiled run time system, but rather generates what is needed as part of the compilation process. However, back ends do have specific run-time representations of data, which can be affected by things like the choice of garbage collector. The following describes the general layout for the C based back-ends, but compiler options such as garbage collection method or whether we do full program analysis, will affect which features are used and whether certain optimized layouts are possible.

Unboxed values directly translate to values in the target language, an unboxed Int will translate directly into an 'int' as an argument and an unboxed pointer will be a raw pointer. Unboxed values have no special interpretation and are not followed by the garbage collector. If the target language does not support a feature such as multiple return values, it will have to be simulated. It would not be wrong to think of Grin code that only deals with unboxed values to be isomorphic to C-- or C augmented with multiple return values.

Boxed values have a standard representation and can be followed. Unlike some other implementation, being boxed does not imply the object is located on the heap. It may be on the stack, heap, or even embedded within the smart pointer itself. Being boxed only means that the object may be represented by a smart pointer, which may or may not actually be a pointer in the traditional sense.

A boxed value in jhc is represented by a 'smart pointer' of c type sptr_t. a smart pointer is the size of a native pointer, but can take on different roles depending on a pair of tag bits, called the ptype.

smart pointers take on a general form as follows:

-------------------------
|    payload        | GL|
-------------------------

  G - if set, then the garbage collector should not treat value as a pointer to be followed
  L - lazy, this bit being set means the value is potentially not in WHNF

A sptr_t on its own in the wild can only take on one of the following forms:

-------------------------
|    whnf raw value | 10|
-------------------------

-------------------------
|    whnf location  | 00|
-------------------------

WHNF stands for 'Weak Head Normal Form' and means that the value is not a suspended function and hence not a pointer to a thunk. It may be directly examined and need not be evaluated. wptr_t is an alias for sptr_t that is guarenteed to be of one of the above forms. It is used to improve safety for when we can statically know that a value is WHNF and hence we can skip the expensive 'eval'.

The difference between the raw value and the whnf location is that the first contains uninterpreted bits, while the second is a pointer to a location on the heap or stack and hence the garbage collector should follow it. The format of the memory pointed to by the whnf location is unspecified and dependent on the actual type being represented.

Partial (unsaturated) applications are normal WHNF values. Saturated applications which may be 'eval'ed and updated are called thunks and must not be pointed to by WHNF pointers. Their representation follows.

-------------------------
|   lazy location   | 01|
-------------------------

A lazy location points to either a thunk, or a redirection to a WHNF value. A lazy location is always a pointer to an allocated block of memory which always begins with a restricted smart pointer. This restricted smart pointer is represented by the C type alias 'fptr_t'. fptr_t's only occur as the first entry in a lazy location, they never are passed around as objects in their own right.

A fptr_t may be a whnf value or a code pointer. If a fptr_t is a whnf value (of one of the two forms given above) then it is called a redirection, the lazy location should be treated exactly as if it were the whnf given. This is used to redirect an evaluated thunk to its computed value.

A fptr_t may also be a 'code pointer' in which case the lazy location is called a thunk. A code pointer is a pointer to executable machine code that evaluates a closure and returns a wptr_t, the returned wptr_t is then generally written over the code pointer, turning the thunk into a redirection. It is the responsibility of the code pointed to to perform this redirection.

-------------------------
|    code pointer   | 11|
-------------------------
|     data ...          |

When debugging, the special code pointer BLACK_HOLE is also sometimes stored in a fptr_t to detect certain run-time errors.

Note that unlike other implementations, a fptr_t may not be another lazy location. you can not have chained redirections, a redirection is always a redirection to a whnf value.

sptr_t - a tagged smart pointer, may contain a whnf value or a lazy location.
wptr_t - a tagged smart pointer that contains a whnf value (either raw or a location)
fptr_t - a tagged smart pointer, may contain a whnf value indicating a redirection, or a code pointer indicating a thunk.

Jhc Core Type System

Jhc's core is based on a pure type system. A pure type system (also called a PTS) is actually a parameterized set of type systems. Jhc's version is described by the following.

Sorts  = (*, !, **, #, (#), ##, □)
Axioms = (*:**, #:##, !:**, **:□, ##:□)

-- sort kind
*   is the kind of boxed values
!   is the kind of boxed strict values
#   is the kind of unboxed values
(#) is the kind of unboxed tuples
-- sort superkind
**  is the superkind of all boxed value
##  is the superkind of all unboxed values
-- sort box
□   superkinds inhabit this

in addition there exist user defined kinds, which are always of supersort ##

The following Rules table shows what sort of abstractions are allowed, a rule of the form (A,B,C) means you can have functions of things of sort A to things of sort B and the result is something of sort C. Function in this context subsumes both term and type level abstractions.

Notice that functions are always boxed, but may be strict if they take an unboxed tuple as an argument. When a function is strict it means that it is represented by a pointer to code directly, it cannot be a suspended value that evaluates to a function.

These type system rules apply to lambda abstractions. It is possible that data constructors might exist that cannot be given a type on their own with these rules, even though when fully applied it has a well formed type. An example would be unboxed tuples. This presents no difficulty as one concludes correctly that it is a type error for these constructors to ever appear when not fully saturated with arguments.

as a shortcut we will use *# to mean every combination involving * and #, and so forth.
for instance, (*#,*#,*) means the set (*,*,*) (#,*,*) (*,#,*) (#,#,*)

Rules =
   (*#!,*#!,*)  -- functions from values to values are boxed and lazy
   (*#!,(#),*)  -- functions from values to unboxed tuples are boxed and lazy
   ((#),*#!,!)  -- functions from unboxed tuples to values are boxed and strict
   ((#),(#),!)  -- functions from unboxed tuples to unboxed tuples are boxed and strict
   (**,*,*)     -- may have a function from an unboxed type to a value
   (**,#,*)
   (**,!,*)
   (**,**,**)  -- we have functions from types to types
   (**,##,##)  -- Array__ a :: #

The defining feature of boxed values is

_|_ :: t iff t::*

This PTS is functional but not injective

The PTS can be considered stratified into the following levels

□                - sort box
**,##,           - sort superkind
*,#,(#),!        - sort kind
Int,Bits32_,Char - sort type
3,True,"bob"     - sort value

On boxed kinds

The boxed kinds (* and !) represent types that have a uniform run time representation. Due to this, functions may be written that are polymorphic in types of these kinds. Hence the rules of the form (**,?,?), allowing taking types of boxed kinds as arguments.

the unboxed kind # is inhabited with types that have their own specific run time representation. Hence you cannot write functions that are polymorphic in unboxed types

On sort box, the unboxed tuple, and friends

Although sort box does not appear in the code, it is useful from a theoretical point of view to talk about certain types such as the types of unboxed tuples. Unboxed tuples may have boxed and unboxed arguments, without sort box it would be impossible to express this since it must be superkind polymorphic. sort box allows one to express this as (in the case of the unboxed 2-tuple)

∀s1:□ ∀s2:□ ∀k1:s1 ∀k2:s2 ∀t1:k1 ∀t2:k2 . (# t1, t2 #)

However, although this is a valid typing of what it would mean if a unboxed tuple were not fully applied, since we do not have any rules of form (##,?,?) or (□,?,?) this type obviously does not typecheck. Which is what enforces the invarient that unboxed tuples are always fully applied, and is also why we do not need a code representation of sort box.

Do we need a superbox?

You will notice that if you look at the axioms involving the sorts, you end up with a disjoint graph

         □             - the box
        / \
      **   ##          - superkind
      /\     \
     *  !     #   (#)  - kind

This is simply due to the fact that nothing is polymorphic in unboxed tuples of kind (#) so we never need to refer to any super-sorts of them. We can add sorts (##),(□) and □□ to fill in the gaps, but since these sorts will never appear in code or discourse, we will ignore them from now on.

           □□            - sort superbox
          /  \
         □    (□)        - sort box
        / \      \
      **   ##     (##)   - sort superkind
      /\     \    |
     *  !     #   (#)    - sort kind